Mind sports and doping
Introduction
As a result of the ratification of the Anti-Dopingconvention in 1995, the Dutch government has developed a more and more binding policy to compel the national sport federations to pursue an active anti-doping policy. These federations should minimally possess anti-doping regulations. Because there are doubts about the relevancy of such a policy for the intellectual sports, these sports are provisionally exempted from this ruling. Partly because the Dutch federations of various intellectual sports requested so, the Dutch ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport has asked the Netherlands Centre for Doping affairs to perform a study to clarify whether pharmacologically induced enhancement of performance is possible in intellectual sports. The sports involved are chess, draughts, bridge and go.
Methods
The foremost purpose of this study was to investigate whether there are pharmacological substances that can be used to enhance the performance in intellectual sports. In addition, it was studied whether the use of such a substance is associated with potential health hazards. If both criteria are met, the substance in question is denoted as a doping substance in this study. The question whether a certain substance would be detrimental to the image of sport is not addressed.
Since there is little literature available with an immediate focus on the pharmacological manipulation of performance in intellectual sports, it was decided to consult experts. These experts were (former) elite players, representatives of the Dutch federations of various intellectual sports and scientists in the field of neurosciences. At first, these experts were consulted individually. The subject was subsequently discussed in a meeting of the experts in order to gather all available knowledge.
Results
Intellectual sports require completely different skills than physical sports do. The main difference is the primary role of mental processes as a performance-determining factor in intellectual sports. This primary role of cognitive factors holds equally true for the sports of chess, draughts, bridge and go. This justifies a special position within the existing doping regulations for the intellectual sports.
The experts from the world of intellectual sports had the impression that the use of pharmacological substances with the aim to enhance performance occurs only very occasionally. The general belief is that these substances do more harm than good to the performance in intellectual sports. Based on their proven effects, however, it can be assumed that it is possible to induce performance enhancement in intellectual sports.
As far as known, no pharmacological substances exist that directly enhance performance in intellectual sports. However, it is in all probability true that such an enhancement can be realised in an indirect manner. With the aid of pharmacological substances, it is possible to improve several cognitive functions. Examples of such functions are alertness, attention, vigilance, memory, information processing, the speed of thinking and the ability to execute a certain cognitive task for a prolonged time. These cognitive functions are supportive of the execution of cognitive processes, which in turn determine the way complex tasks, like playing intellectual sports, are executed. Statements about this final step can only be based on presumptions because of a lack of sufficient knowledge regarding the relationship between cognitive processes and the performance in intellectual sports.
Since the cognitive effects of pharmacological substances are generally small, the expected effects on performance in intellectual sports are supposed to be small as well.
In colloquy with the consulted experts and based on the scientific literature, a list was drawn up containing substances which might be expected to be able to enhance the performance in intellectual sports. This broad formulation was chosen in order to be certain not to exclude any substance beforehand. Because of the differences in performance determining factors between intellectual sports and physical sports, this list differs from the existing list of banned substances and methods as is used by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).
This list of substances with possibly performance enhancing properties for intellectual sports has been classified into three categories. The first category incorporates substances and substance groups, which can be expected to enhance performance in intellectual sports while the use of these substances is accompanied by harmful health effects. These substances are nicotine and other cholinergics, amphetamines, ephedrine, cocaine, beta-blockers and substances that support the transport of oxygen in blood. Based on the definition of doping that is used in this study, these substances can be regarded as doping substances.
The substances caffeine, MDMA-analogues (like ecstasy), cannabinoids, opiates, alcohol and benzodiazepines do not comply with the definition of doping as used in this study.
The current scientific knowledge is not sufficient to clarify the possible intellectual sports performance enhancing properties of all substances. For the time being, there is not enough information to be able to determine whether these substances are doping or not. This regards the 5-HT1A-agonists, the neuropeptides and the hormones growth hormone, estrogens and testosterone.
Conclusions
- The factors that determine performance are substantially different between intellectual sports and physical sports which justifies separate anti-doping regulations.
- Inside the world of intellectual sports, the impression exists that the use of pharmacological substances with the aim to enhance performance occurs only very occasionally.
- It can be expected that the performance in intellectual sports can be enhanced by means of pharmacological substances. The expected effects of such substances are, however, small.
- The use of some of the possibly performance enhancing substances might be associated with harmful health effects, which means that these substances can be considered to be doping.
- It is recommended that the federations of intellectual sports will formally prohibit doping in the future and that these federations will draw up regulations that enable to impose sanctions when prohibited substances are being used in intellectual sports.
- When it is decided to prohibit doping for intellectual sports, it is recommended that a specific list of prohibited substances is formulated. This list should not be similar to the current (IOC-) list of prohibited substances.
- It is desirable that the Dutch policy concerning intellectual sports and doping agrees with possible future international regulations regarding this subject. This study might contribute to the harmonisation of anti-doping regulations.
O.M. de Hon en F. Hartgens
